Introduction
Citizen participation is essential for strengthening good governance, enhancing efficiency, and ensuring the equitable distribution of resources. For citizens, participation increases the likelihood that their voices will be heard. It can also stimulate broader public debates and opinions that may not originally be part of governmental agendas (Baiocchi, 2003). Citizen participation facilitates the accountability of public officials (Handley & Moroney, 2010), exerting direct or indirect pressure on them to respond to participating groups. Ultimately, participation, through networking and information sharing, reduces the risk of excluding or marginalizing certain groups (Small & Newman, 2001).
When citizens are involved in planning processes, plans and decisions become more widely accepted by future users, thereby easing their implementation. Additionally, citizens’ perspectives as nonexperts can help identify more sustainable and innovative solutions that are workable within specific local contexts (Burby, 2003: 35). Citizen’s participation in addressing scientific problems and codesign processes can lead to more creative and costeffective solutions compared to traditional research and development programs, in which insights related to local environments, contexts, and places may never be raised—or could easily be overlooked (Van Herzele, 2004: 198). As Halachmi and Holzer (2010) argue, citizen participation is a crucial element not only for achieving democratic governance but also for improving efficiency, citizen satisfaction, trust, and transparency in decisionmaking regarding service levels, procedures, and priorities. If one accepts that new ideas may emerge from citizen participation, then planning to maximize citizen engagement and involvement becomes essential.
Citizen participation has been examined across various contexts. These contexts include participation in electoral voting (Verba et al., 1995), urban planning (Mehajabeen et al., 2009), budgeting and performance measurement (Berman & Wang, 2000), and community monitoring (Blair, 2000). Some of the studied contexts are more confrontational in nature, such as filing complaints or letters of condemnation to the government, or joining groups that protest certain governmental development programs (Caren et al., 2011). A lack of opportunities for collaborative participation often leads to increased confrontational forms of participation (Holzner, 2007). Participation can also take various forms, some of which are more interactive and fundamental than others (Handley & Moroney, 2010). Public meetings, focus groups, simulations, committees, and surveys are among the methods commonly used to encourage citizen participation (Berner, 2003).
One of the domains in which participation is considered essential is urban management. Modern cities face major challenges, such as population growth, increasing pollution, climate change, and limited natural resources (Gohari et al., 2020). To manage or mitigate the problems of contemporary cities, the capacities of citizen participation can be utilized. Factors, such as the growing importance of citizens’ roles in public administration, governments’ financial incapacity to fund urban projects, and the mismatch between urban plans and the needs and demands of residents—leading to dissatisfaction and negative reactions toward these plans—have provided the grounds for the emergence of development initiatives based on planning with people. Moreover, citizens participation in city governance offers several advantages, including enhancing public awareness, fostering social responsibility and a sense of belonging, improving the quality of plans, increasing public acceptance of urban projects, and reducing centralization in planning processes (Yarahmadi, 1999).
Mashhad City is confronted with numerous urban issues and challenges, addressing all of which requires substantial human and financial resources on the part of the municipality. To manage these demands, the Mashhad Municipality can use the capacities of citizen participation. One of the municipality’s major service domains is urban safety and fire protection. Safety is one of the most fundamental needs of human life, and the Fire Department primarily seeks to reduce accidents by implementing preventive measures, such as providing safety education and recommendations. In the secondary stage, when incidents occur, the department is responsible for responding to and controlling them. This set of activities represents an area in which citizens can play a more active participatory role. Public knowledge and awareness regarding the nature of safety and the appropriate ways of addressing safety-related issues constitute key components of safety preparedness—components that developed countries have long promoted by cultivating and disseminating a culture of safety as a recognized societal necessity. However, in developing countries, including Iran, the culture of safety, despite its importance and the presence of conditions that call for attention to it, has not yet achieved its proper place among the general public (Helvani et al., 2012). Furthermore, the 2022 report of the Mashhad Fire Department on the causes of fire incidents indicates that most fires in the city are originated from human error, with the majority related to electrical wiring failures, burning waste materials, or the intentional burning of various objects. In addition, many reported incidents were linked to citizens’ negligence in the regular maintenance and servicing of facilities they frequently use, such as elevators. These findings highlight a growing need for citizen participation in firesafetyrelated activities to enhance their awareness and sense of responsibility.
In addition to these issues, given the wide range of responsibilities assigned to the Mashhad Fire Department, fulfilling all of its duties and objectives in a comprehensive and effective manner requires substantial financial resources. Therefore, citizen participation is needed to help accomplish some of the organization’s key tasks and goals. Engaging citizens in selected functions of the Fire Department not only reduces operational costs for the Fire Department and the Mashhad Municipality, but also equips citizens with greater skills for responding to natural and humaninduced incidents. Considering the low level of citizen participation in firerelated activities in Iran, and in Mashhad City in particular—and the lack of scientific studies that examine and explain this issue—this research aimed to investigate and explain citizens’ participatory behaviors in enhancing urban safety, using the Mashhad Fire Department and Safety Services as a case study.

Research background
In this section, the literature is divided into two categories: studies that address social participation more generally, and studies that specifically focus on participation in firedepartment activities. The first category, which consists largely of domestic research, has not examined participation in firesafety activities. Therefore, this subsection reviews studies that have investigated citizen participation in urban affairs and its determinants within the country. The second category, which primarily includes international research, refers to studies that examine public participation in firedepartment activities through the lens of volunteer firefighters. 
The first category refers to studies that examine social participation in urban affairs and the factors influencing it. Soltani et al. (2025) conducted a qualitative study aimed at explaining the processes involved in organizing volunteer participation in managing urban crises in Tehran City, Iran. The findings indicated that the optimal organization of volunteers requires four key processes: culturebuilding, planning, recruitment and structuring, and training. Kabiri et al. (2024) conducted a surveybased study aimed at assessing the performance challenges of neighborhood emergency response volunteer (DAVAM) groups (neighborhood emergency response volunteers) in Tehran City. The results showed that the stabilization and retention of DAVAM members, satisfaction with DAVAM membership, and commitment to the DAVAM group had significant effects on members’ loyalty to the group. Furthermore, the stabilization and retention of members, along with their satisfaction with group membership, had a significant impact on their commitment to the DAVAM group as well. Conducted a surveybased study aimed at identifying the factors influencing participation in natural hazard riskmitigation measures. The findings indicated that variables, such as education level, annual income, distance of the residential house from the nearest river, perception of the accuracy and reliability of flood warnings, familiarity with flood response principles and methods, belief in the possibility of controlling and managing floods, and receiving flood warnings played the most significant role in predicting the level of adoption of flood riskmitigation measures. Conducted a surveybased study aimed at explaining the structural model of social order in Kashan City based on citizens’ participation. The results indicated that, overall, citizens’ participation influenced social order in Kashan City through a structural model consisting of five relevant factors. Within this model, participation management had the greatest effect on social order, with a path coefficient of 0.73, while participation structure had the smallest effect, with a path coefficient of 0.41. Elmi (2021) conducted a surveybased study aimed at explaining the cultural and social factors associated with citizens’ participation in Tabriz City, Iran. The findings showed that variables, such as social trust, modernism, social cohesion, and satisfaction with the government, had significant relationships with participation. Yousefi et al. (2020) conducted a surveybased study to examine and assess the level of citizens’ participation regarding the concept of a learning city in Qazvin, Iran. The findings showed that education, political–institutional infrastructures, physical–psychological factors, economic factors, and the learning domain had significant relationships with social participation. Moreover, education, political–institutional infrastructures, cultural factors, and the learning domain were significantly associated with economic participation. However, scientific participation was significantly associated with only to formal education, cultural infrastructures, technological factors, and physical–psychological factors. Kherghani et al. (2020) conducted a study aimed at examining the role of citizens’ participation in the implementation of the “Tehran TobaccoFree City” plan. The results indicated that citizens’ familiarity with and participation in the plan were low. The most important reasons for their unwillingness to cooperate in tobaccorelated activities were lack of sufficient time, perceiving such cooperation as useless, and lack of interest. Conducted a surveybased study to investigate the effect of cultural capital on participatory behavior among residents involved in the renovation of the areas surrounding the Razavi Holy Shrine. The results indicated that the most important problems hindering public participation in urban renewal included low trust in the responsible institutions and project implementers, lack of financial capacity for reconstruction, inattention by the municipality, the perception that the main benefits of renewal accrue to others, lack of trust between residents and project executors, insufficient and unclear information regarding participation, and the absence of alternative accommodation during the construction. Amini and Amini (2016) conducted a surveybased study aimed at examining the economic, social, and contextual factors affecting the level of citizens’ participation in urban affairs related to Shushtar. The findings showed significant and positive relationships between the independent variables—citizens’ satisfaction, social trust, sense of social belonging, citizens’ awareness, and income—and the dependent variable, namely the level of participation. Amanpour et al. (2015) conducted a surveybased study aimed at measuring citizens’ satisfaction with the implementation of municipal infrastructure projects and their willingness to participate in the implementation of these projects in District 4 of Ahvaz City, Iran. The findings indicate that, overall, 77.5% of citizens expressed a very high level of dissatisfaction with the performance of the municipality. Regarding willingness to participate in infrastructural programs and projects, only 47.3% of citizens—less than half of the respondents—showed an inclination to participate in such field. The highest level of willingness to participate was related to the development of facilities in their own neighborhoods, while the lowest level was associated with citizens’ participation in the management of urban affairs by the municipality.
The second group of studies focuses on participation in firefighting activities. Tieperman (2025) conducted a qualitative study on the reasons for the retention of volunteer firefighters. Analysis of 25 interviews showed that mutual respect, family influence, acceptance by peers, voluntary incentive programs, schoolbased outreach activities, leadership presence, accommodation facilities, and tax exemptions were among the most important factors contributing to their retention. Freise & Walter (2024) conducted a study aimed at examining the motivations of volunteer firefighters in Germany. Using a survey method administered to 429 volunteer firefighters in rural areas of western Germany, the findings indicated that volunteer firefighters expect their work to be recognized by citizens, policymakers, and public managers. Accordingly, they expect to be valued both at the personal level (through material and nonmaterial recognition) and through the provision of appropriate structural and organizational conditions that enable effective performance. Brooms (2024) conducted a surveybased study aimed at examining the factors influencing the motivation to participate in firefighting activities as a volunteer firefighter in North Dakota. The findings revealed that economic and social factors—such as financial benefits and social support—had positive and significant effects on participation motivation, whereas the perceived risk of physical hazards had a negative and significant effect on such motivation. Henderson and Sowa (2018) conducted a survey study to identify the most important factors influencing participation in firefighting activities in the state of Pennsylvania. The results indicated that volunteer training, performance management, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment affected participation in firefighting activities. Finger et al. (2016) conducted a project titled Recruiting and Retaining the Volunteer Firefighter: Challenges and Solutions for the U.S. National Volunteer Fire Council. The findings of this surveybased study indicate that in many fire departments volunteer firefighters are heavily involved due to operational pressures. Most respondents attributed this situation to three main factors: lack of time, shortage of personnel, and insufficient financial resources. Dehalke et al. (2015) conducted a project titled Workforce Provision, Recruitment, and Retention of Volunteer Firefighters for the Victoria Volunteer Fire Services Organization. The results of this qualitative study showed that several factors can enhance the recruitment of volunteers, including: (a) intrinsic motivation, (b) diverse experiences and opportunities offered within volunteer firefighting, (c) distinctive personal characteristics of volunteers compared with members of other local organizations, (d) the application of marketing principles, and (e) practical and strategic decisionmaking regarding effective approaches for future volunteer recruitment. 
Aldridge (2014) conducted a project titled Developing Effective Recruitment and Retention Strategies for Volunteer Firefighters for the Western Australia Fire and Emergency Services Authority. The results of this surveybased study indicated that several general factors reduce the willingness to recruit volunteer firefighters, including distance from one’s own town or village, volunteers’ inability to reside in the required area, ineffective advertising by fire organizations, and increasing family and work commitments among potential volunteers. Ellis et al. (2013) conducted a project titled Strategies for the Recruitment, Provision, and Retention of Personnel in the Fire Service for the Rosemount Fire Department. The findings showed that several issues—such as a stronger focus on motivations, community engagement, recruitment as firefighters, advertising/marketing, and the recruitment of women—constitute major challenges in attracting volunteer firefighters. Moreover, five major challenges related to personnel retention were identified: time constraints, mismatch between current firefighter skills and the skills required for assigned responsibilities, declining motivation, lack of communication, and job burnout. Birch (2011) conducted a project titled Recruitment and Retention of Volunteer Firefighters in Australia for the Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre. The results of this surveybased study showed that most volunteers leave the service due to migration from the area, work and family commitments, aging or illness, or dissatisfaction with their volunteer experience.
A synthesis of the studies on participation in firefighting activities indicates that one of the most significant factors motivating citizens to engage in such activities is financial and economic incentives. In many of these reports, it was observed that individuals participated as volunteers with the expectation of receiving compensation, tax exemptions, or reductions in municipal fees, and they tended to continue their involvement when these needs were met. One of the primary factors contributing to decreased participation in volunteer firefighting activities was the substantial time commitment required. Many volunteers expressed dissatisfaction with the extensive duration of firefighting training programs, identifying it as a key reason for discontinuing or not sustaining their participation. Furthermore, some volunteers were unable to participate regularly and consistently in firefighting activities due to the nature of their occupations. One factor that could potentially increase individuals’ participation in firefighting activities was the sense of pride and social value associated with such involvement. A review of previous studies shows that most of the first group of studies—primarily domestic research—focused on social participation in urban affairs in general, and no study specifically examined participation in firefighting activities. This distinguishes the present research, as it directly addresses this particular form of participation.

Theoretical framework
In this study, two theoretical foundations are employed as the theoretical framework: the Ajzen & Fishbein’s theory of Reasoned Action, and Robert Dahl’s Participation Theory. The Ajzen & Fishbein’s theory of Reasoned Action (1980) states that behavior is directly determined by an individual’s behavioral intention. In other words, the stronger a person’s intention to perform a behavior, the more likely it is that the behavior will actually be carried out. Behavioral intention reflects an individual’s motivation, meaning their conscious plan, decision, or selfinstruction to exert effort toward performing the target behavior. These intentions are typically assessed through items that evaluate the likelihood of performing the behavior. According to this theory, behavioral intention is shaped by attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms (Ajzen, 2002).
Attitudes represent an individual’s overall evaluation of a given behavior. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) define attitude as “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object.” Attitudes are typically measured using semantic differential scales (Conner & Sparks, 2015). Attitude refers to a person’s assessment of a specific behavior, which may be positive, negative, or neutral. As attitudes become more positive, individuals’ intentions to perform a behavior increase (De Bruijn, 2010).
Subjective norms refer to an individual’s beliefs about whether important others think he or she should engage in a particular behavior. Subjective norms are assumed to capture the “social pressures” (from significant referents) that individuals perceive regarding performing or not performing a given behavior. They are typically measured through items assessing the perceived approval or disapproval of significant others toward the behavior (Conner, 2020). A subjective norm is a function of normative beliefs, which reflect a person’s perceptions of the preferences of important individuals (referents) regarding whether he or she should perform the behavior. Significant referents are individuals or groups whose opinions matter to the person within the context of the behavior. Normative belief is conceptualized as the subjective probability that specific salient referents think the individual should or should not perform the behavior, multiplied by the person’s motivation to comply with that referent’s expectations. Motivation to comply represents the extent to which an individual is willing to conform to the desires of a particular referent. These products are then summed across salient referents (Terry & Hogg, 1996).
In addition to the Theory of Reasoned Action, Robert Dahl’s Participation Theory is also employed in this study. Dahl focuses on individuals’ willingness or unwillingness to participate in sociopolitical affairs and examines the factors that shape a person’s decision and inclination to engage in participation. One of Dahl’s assumptions highlights that if individuals believe their participation in an activity is insignificant and cannot lead to meaningful change, they will never choose to engage in it. Research has shown a direct relationship between the importance of an issue to an individual and the extent of their social involvement in that issue. The weaker a person’s sense of the effectiveness of their participation, the less likely they are to become involved. Accordingly, Dahl’s assumption can be applied in this context as follows: if citizens perceive their participation in firefighting activities as unimportant or ineffective, they will be unwilling to take part. Conversely, if they believe their involvement can lead to positive change, they are more likely to participate (Rasouli, 2013).
Overall, based on the reviewed theories, it can be expected that participatory behavior is influenced by the intention to participate, and intention itself is influenced by attitudes and subjective norms (Theory of Reasoned Action). The perceived importance of participation, grounded in Dahl’s theory, can influence attitudes, subjective norms, and the intention to participate. These direct and indirect effects among the variables influencing participatory behavior are illustrated in the research model (Figure 1).
The research hypotheses are presented as follows:
1) Participation intention in firefighting activities affects participatory behavior in firefighting activities. 2) Attitude toward participation affects the intention to participate in firefighting activities. 3) Subjective norm affects the intention to participate in firefighting activities. 4) Perceived importance of participation affects the intention to participate in firefighting activities.5) Perceived importance of participation affects attitude toward participation. 6) Perceived importance of participation affects subjective norm.

Materials and Methods
This study employed a quantitative, survey-based research design using a researchermade questionnaire as the primary data collection instrument. The statistical population consisted of all individuals aged 15 years and older living in the 13 municipal districts of Mashhad City who were capable of responding to the questionnaire items. According to the Statistical Yearbook of Iran (2021), the population of Mashhad aged 15 and above is 2,808,507 individuals. Based on Cochran’s formula, the minimum required sample size was estimated to be approximately 384 participants. However, to ensure more accurate allocation across sub-samples and across all 13 districts of Mashhad City, the final sample size was increased to 821 respondents. The sampling method used in this research was proportionate stratified sampling combined with multistage cluster sampling. Specifically, the 13 districts of Mashhad City were considered as the sampling strata, and from each district, the number of participants was selected proportionate to its share of the total population of the city. For example, District 1 comprises approximately 6% of Mashhad’s population; therefore, 6% of the final sample—i.e. 49 respondents—were selected from this district. Within each district, in line with the multistage cluster sampling approach, several neighborhoods, and subsequently a number of streets, alleys, and residential buildings were randomly selected. Data were then collected from the targeted individuals residing in these clusters. At the household level, respondents were also selected randomly. First, the number of household members was recorded, and a numeric code was assigned to each member from the oldest to the youngest based on age. Next, one of these numbers was randomly drawn, and the household member whose number was selected was invited to come to the door and complete the questionnaire. If the selected person was not at home, another number was randomly chosen and the same procedure was repeated. The selected neighborhoods in each municipal district were as follows:
District 1 (Abkuh and Sajjad), District 2 (Shafa, Honarvar, AbdalMotalleb, and Abu Taleb), District 3 (Resalat, Tabarsie Shomali, Khajeh Rabi’, and Belal), District 4 (Behesht, Tollab, and Panjtan), District 5 (Rezayieh and AmiralMo’menin), District 6 (Shiroudi, ChahNow, PourSina, and AmirAbad), District 7 (17 Shahrivar, Kargari, Robat, and Torq), District 8 (Danesh and Imam Khomeini), District 9 (Rezashahr and ShahrAra), District 10 (Lashkar, Isargaran, and Hejab), District 11 (Seyyed Razi and Farhang), District 12 (Jahedshahr), and District Thamen (ChaharBagh and Nowghan). The measurement of the study variables is explained in the following section.

Participatory behavior in firefighting activities
Participatory behavior in firefighting activities was measured using a researchermade scale consisting of three dimensions and 10 items. The three dimensions included: participation in electrical wiring safety compliance, participation in elevator safety compliance, and participation in general safety principles. These dimensions were identified through interviews conducted with senior managers of the Mashhad Fire Department. According to their expert opinions, citizens who adhere to safety principles in these three domains make a meaningful and effective contribution to firefighting activities, and such compliance is likely to reduce the incidence of fire reports and related emergencies. The items measuring participation in electrical wiring safety compliance included practices, such as using separate electrical wiring systems, installing dedicated fuses, and conducting annual maintenance of electrical appliances, such as air coolers, heaters, and electric samovars. The elevator safety compliance dimension included items assessing whether residential buildings are equipped with emergency power systems for elevators, adequate ventilation and lighting systems, and regular periodic maintenance of elevators. The general safety compliance dimension included behaviors, such as clearing access routes for fire engines during incidents and fires, contacting the fire department upon observing hazardous situations that may lead to accidents or fires (e.g., electrical wire connections on power poles), refraining from parking vehicles near public fire hydrants, and intervening when encountering individuals damaging public fire hydrants. Responses to all items were measured using a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from never (1) to always (5).

Participation intention
Participation intention (or behavioral intention) is considered one of the immediate antecedents of actual behavior and plays a crucial role in the performance of a given behavior. In the present study, participation intention refers to the expressed willingness and readiness of citizens to actively engage in three domains: educational, human resource, and financial participation related to firefighting activities. This variable was measured using a researchermade instrument consisting of 12 items across three dimensions: intention to participate in educational activities, intention to contribute human resources, and intention to provide financial support. Responses were recorded on a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from very high (5) to very low (1).
Sample items included:
“To what extent are you willing to participate in a fire safety and firefighting training course organized by the Fire Department?”
“To what extent would you be willing, if present at an emergency scene, to help prevent crowd gathering?”
“To what extent would you be able, through personal initiative or by contacting donors, to provide commonly used firefighting equipment, such as fire extinguishers and donate them to the Fire Department?”

Subjective norms
According to Ajzen and Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action, subjective norms consist of two components: others’ expectations and motivation to comply with those expectations. In the present study, this variable was measured using a researchermade scale comprising 7 items across these two dimensions (others’ expectations and motivation to comply). Responses were recorded on a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from very high (5) to very low (1).
Sample items used to measure this construct included statements such as:
“It is important to my family members that I observe safety principles in the electrical wiring of the building.”
“I service the elevator of my residence regularly solely for the health and safety of my family members.”

Attitude toward participation
In Ajzen and Fishbein’s framework, attitude is conceptualized as a function of two factors: expected benefits and evaluation of those outcomes. In this study, attitude toward participation in firefighting activities was measured using a researchermade instrument consisting of 8 items across two dimensions—expected benefits and evaluation of benefits—rated on a fivepoint Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1).
Sample items included the following:
"By implementing safety principles in buildings, such as using standard elevators and electrical wiring, I prevent the occurrence of harmful incidents."
"Spending money to comply with building safety principles, such as using standard elevators and electrical wiring, is not economically justified."

Perceived importance of participation
According to Dahl’s theory, the greater an individual’s perception of the importance of their participation, the more likely they are to engage in participatory behavior. To operationalize perceived importance of participation in firefighting activities, a researcher-made scale consisting of 4 items was employed. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from very high (5) to very low (1).
Sample items included:
"To what extent do you think that timely reporting of potential hazards to the Fire Department can reduce the occurrence of accidents?"
"To what extent do you think that not gathering at the scene of an incident can reduce the extent of damages?"
To assess the validity of the study variables, face validity was employed. Face validity refers to assessing the appropriateness and adequacy of the research indicators or measures through consultation with expert reviewers. In the present study, a review of the pertinent literature confirmed that the indices incorporated into the questionnaire items accurately covered the conceptual domain of the variables under investigation. To evaluate the reliability of the research variables, Cronbach’s α coefficient was calculated. As shown in Table 1, the results indicate that the reliability levels for all research variables are appropriate and acceptable.

Results 
Approximately 49% of the respondents were women and 51% were men. About 57% were married, 36% were single, and the remainder were widowed or divorced. The mean age of respondents was approximately 33 years. Nearly half of the participants reported being employed, followed by homemakers as the second most frequent group. In terms of education, roughly twothirds of respondents held a bachelor’s degree or higher. Regarding income levels, 47% of participants reported earning between 1 and 2 million tomans, while 34% earned below one million tomans per month. The average length of residence in Mashhad City was around 28 years, and the average residence duration in their current neighborhood was about 14 years.
According to the results presented in Table 2, approximately 65% of respondents reported a high level of participation in observing the fire department’s safety principles, 21.4% reported a moderate level, and 13.5% demonstrated a low level of participation. The mean value of participatory behavior was 3.54 out of 5, indicating a relatively high level of citizen participation in safety practices. Among the subdimensions of safety behavior, the highest mean belonged to general safety compliance (M = 4.51), while elevator safety (M = 2.8) and electrical safety (M = 3.15) showed the lowest average levels of compliance.
According to the results presented in Table 3, among the independent variables, perceived importance of participation had the highest mean score (M=4.25), indicating a high level. The mean scores of subjective norms and attitude toward participation were 3.87 and 3.75, respectively, both reflecting relatively high levels. In contrast, intention to participate had a mean score of 1.90, indicating a low level.
Table 4 presents the correlation coefficients between the background variables and the main research variables. The results indicate that subjective norms and perceived importance of participation are positively and significantly associated with age, suggesting that as age increases, both subjective norms and perceived importance of participation tend to increase. In contrast, intention to participate shows a negative and significant relationship with age, indicating that intention to participate decreases as age increases. Educational level is positively and significantly correlated with compliance with safety principles, intention to participate, attitude toward participation, subjective norms, and perceived importance of participation. The findings indicate that higher levels of education are associated with greater compliance with safety principles, increased willingness to participate, more positive attitudes toward participation, stronger subjective norms, and a higher perceived importance of participation. Furthermore, compliance with safety principles, subjective norms, and perceived importance of participation have positive and significant relationships with length of residence in the city, indicating that individuals who have lived longer in the city demonstrate higher levels of safety compliance and stronger normative and importance perceptions regarding participation. However, intention to participate is negatively associated with length of residence in the city. In addition, compliance with safety principles is negatively related to length of residence in the neighborhood, suggesting that longer neighborhood residence is associated with lower levels of safety compliance. Finally, perceived importance of participation, subjective norms, and attitude toward participation are negatively and significantly associated with household size, meaning that as the number of household members increases, these participatory orientations tend to decline.

Structural equation model of participatory behaviors in firefighting activities
Figure 2 shows the structural equation model of participatory behaviors in firefighting-related activities. The model was developed and estimated using AMOS software.
Table 5 presents several of the most important model fit indices, along with their interpretations and the values obtained for the proposed model. Overall, it can be stated that most of the model fit indices are within acceptable ranges. Therefore, the proposed model demonstrates an adequate fit and is capable of explaining the observed data in accordance with the theoretical model.
The results of Table 6 indicate that all independent research variables have a direct and indirect effect on participatory behaviors in firefighting activities. According to the results of this table, the variable of intention to participate has a positive and significant effect of approximately 0.26 on participatory behaviors in firefighting activities. Furthermore, the greatest effects on the intention to participate belong to the variables of subjective norm (β=0.46), importance of participation (β= 0.23), and attitude toward participation (β=0.12), respectively. The variable of importance of participation affects the attitude toward participation (β=0.78) and subjective norm (β=0.72). Overall, it can be stated that the variables of importance of participation, subjective norm, and attitude toward participation have a total effect of 0.17, 0.12, and 0.03 on participatory behavior, respectively.”

Discussion
The results indicate that subjective norms and attitudes toward participation have significant effects on the intention to participate. The Theory of Reasoned Action explains the nature of the relationship between intention and attitudes. According to this theory, an individual’s evaluation or attitude toward a behavior is determined by the accessible beliefs they hold about that behavior. In this framework, attitude refers to the subjective probability that performing a behavior will lead to a specific outcome. More specifically, the evaluation of each consequence contributes to the overall attitude in proportion to the individual’s subjective belief that the behavior produces the desired outcome. The findings of this study showed that individuals’ attitudes toward participation in firefighting activities—comprising the two dimensions of evaluation and expected benefits—have a positive and significant effect on their intention to participate. In addition, subjective norms are also associated with intention to participate. In addition, subjective norms can also be associated with the intention to participate. According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), subjective norm refers to an individual’s belief about whether significant others approve or disapprove of a particular behavior. It reflects a person’s perception of whether peers and important individuals believe they should engage in the behavior. The findings of this study indicate that subjective norm has a positive and significant effect on the intention to participate in firefighting activities. Previous research—such as Broms (2024), Ellis et al. (2013), Amini & Amini (2016), and Amanpour et al. (2015)—also supports the influence of subjective norms and attitudes on participation intentions. This influence can be interpreted as follows: for individuals and their close social circle, participating in firefighting activities is perceived as important, and this shared social expectation creates a mental environment that encourages participation.
The high mean score of the subjective norms variable confirms the presence of a favorable social atmosphere regarding helping and participating in firefighting activities. In addition, the high mean score of individuals’ attitudes toward participation in firefighting activities indicates a positive perception of such participation among the respondents. These two variables may have been influenced by the educational initiatives of the Fire Department, which began in the 2011s and have continued to the present. During these years, the Mashhad Fire Department has implemented extensive training programs, including specialized workshops for organizations and companies, as well as public training sessions in neighborhoods and schools across the city. It can therefore be concluded that these educational efforts have contributed to strengthening positive attitudes toward participation and enhancing the social norms associated with such involvement.
Another hypothesis of the study is related to Dahl’s theory, which suggests that the more positively individuals perceive their participation, the higher their subjective norms, intention, and attitudes toward participation will be. Accordingly, it can be argued that citizens’ perceptions of the importance of participation in firefighting activities influence both their attitudes toward participation and their subjective norms regarding adherence to safety principles. The findings of this study also indicate that the perceived importance of participation among citizens has a positive effect on their subjective norms, intention, and attitudes toward participation. In other words, the more important participation is perceived to be by citizens, the stronger their subjective norms and attitudes toward participation become. Consequently, this leads to a greater willingness to participate and ultimately to higher levels of participatory behavior.
The results of previous studies, such as those by Freese and Walter (2024), Finger et al. (2016), Aldridge (2014), Amini and Amini (2016), and TavanaeiBoshrooyeh et al. (2016), also indicate the influence of the perceived importance of participation on participatory behaviors. Regarding the effect of the importance of participation on other variables, several initiatives undertaken by the Mashhad Fire Department can be mentioned. In recent years, the organization has launched several safety campaigns through which citizens can provide both financial and nonfinancial support to the fire department. In terms of financial contributions, public calls have been issued inviting citizens to donate to the fire department, and bank account numbers have been provided for this purpose. Among those who contributed, a lottery was held and some individuals were selected and recognized as responsible citizens. In addition, individuals who were able to provide nonfinancial support—such as producing educational clips or organizing training classes and workshops—were publicly acknowledged and honored during special ceremonies recognizing outstanding contributors. The recognition of these individuals and collaborators with the fire department was also promoted through banners and advertising billboards across the city. In this way, the importance of participation was promoted and encouraged among the general public.
One of the hypotheses of this study concerns the effect of intention on participatory behavior in firefighting activities. Intention refers to an individual’s readiness to perform a specific behavior. It is assumed that intention serves as the immediate antecedent of behavior. Ajzen (2002) proposed that behavior is a function of the intention associated with that behavior. Intention refers to the motivational factors that influence a particular behavior; the stronger the intention to perform the behavior, the more likely it is that the behavior will be carried out. The findings of this study also show that intention has a positive and significant effect on participatory behavior. In other words, the greater the intention to participate in firefighting activities, the higher the level of participation in such activities. These findings are consistent with previous studies, such as those conducted by Dehlke et al. (2015), Ellis et al. (2013), and Kharaghani et al. (2020), which also confirm the positive relationship between intention and participatory behavior. The activities of the Mashhad Fire Department in two main areas—extensive public and specialized training, and the launch of campaigns to attract both financial and nonfinancial contributions—have led to an increase in citizens’ intention to participate in firefighting activities. This increased intention has, in turn, had a positive and significant effect on participatory behavior within the fire department.

Conclusion
The present study was conducted to examine citizens’ participatory behaviors in adhering to safety principles in Mashhad City. To assess this situation, participatory behaviors were first explored in three areas: electrical safety, elevator safety, and general safety. Before entering the fieldwork stage, previous research in this domain was reviewed and summarized, and the theoretical foundations related to citizen participation in urban contexts were analyzed. Ultimately, a set of indicators for operationalizing the variables related to participatory behaviors and their influencing factors was identified. Based on the findings of this research, it can be concluded that the Ajzen and Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action, as well as Robert Dahl’s theory of participation, provide strong explanatory power for understanding intention and participatory behavior in the activities of the fire department. These results show that such theories can explain safetyrelated and crisismanagement behaviors even in a country whose cultural and social context differs from those in which these theories were originally developed. Overall, the findings emphasize that the variable “importance of participation” deserves particular attention, as it significantly influences attitudes, subjective norms, and subsequently the intention to participate. Therefore, strengthening the perceived importance of participation in safety and crisis management should be considered a key priority.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
In this study, all ethical principles were observed. Since no experiments on animal or human samples were conducted, no ethical code was obtained.

Funding
This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. 

Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.
 



 

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