Introduction
Disaster risk management (DRM) presents a fundamental challenge for organizations and societies in the present era. According to a 2021 report by the Center for Research on Disaster Epidemiology (CRED), natural disasters worldwide affected over 200 million people and resulted in more than 10,000 deaths (Huang KS, 2022). Iran, as a developing country in Asia, is exposed to various types of natural and man-made disasters (Abbasabadi-Arab Masoumeh, 2023). The country is prone to accidents, ranking among the top ten most disaster-prone nations globally in terms of natural disasters. Statistics indicate that out of 43 known accident types, 34 occur in Iran.
A 2021 World Health Organization report indicates that natural disasters in Iran have not only caused loss of life but have also had long-term impacts on the country’s mental health and health infrastructure. The report estimates that more than 10 million people in Iran require mental health services due to natural disasters (Abbasabadi-Arab Masoumeh, 2023). 

Research background
The occurrence of a crisis in a society can cause extensive material and moral losses, and compensating for these losses requires significant costs and resources. In the meantime, only those who are able to effectively manage a crisis are able to understand its origin and factors well so that they can take appropriate and remedial decisions and actions (Nuortimo et al., 2026). The role of mid-level managers in this area is particularly significant, as this group is responsible for implementing policies and making key decisions. The decisions made by these managers can have a direct impact on reducing or increasing disaster risks (Samaddar et al., 2021). Additionally, decision-making styles, as individual characteristics of managers, influence their decision-making processes and may shape their intentions to take preventive measures and respond effectively to disasters (Li et al., 2022).
The intention of mid-level managers to participate in DRM actions is significantly influenced by their decision-making styles and attitudes toward DRM (Sawaneh & Fan, 2021), which can be examined within the framework of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). Proposed by Ajzen (1991), the TRA has its roots in social psychology and has been widely utilized in various fields, including medicine, education, economics, behavioral sciences, and research. This theory facilitates the measurement of managers’ intentions regarding disaster preparedness and preventive measures, their intention to engage in DRM-related behaviors, and the impact of subjective norms along with external factors affecting behavior.
In other words, this theory comprises three components: the tendency to perform a behavior, attitude, and mental norms. An individual’s intention to perform a behavior depends on their attitude toward that behavior and their mental norms. If an individual intends to perform a behavior, they will pursue it (Turhan et al., 2010). Attitudes represent an important and measurable aspect of personality. Fishbein and Ajzen suggested that the formation of a tendency to perform a behavior relies on the individual’s intention toward that behavior and their prior beliefs. Researchers also examine the influence of the social environment on intention and behavior, using the term “normative beliefs,” which in this model are referred to as subjective norms. Subjective norms are beliefs about how others evaluate a behavior (Tahmasbi et al., 2014). In the context of DRM, managers’ intentions regarding disaster preparedness and their perceptions of the importance of these measures play a fundamental role in determining their level of participation (Hagger, 2019).

Research background 
Numerous studies have examined the factors affecting DRM. Alqahtany and Abubakar showed that public attitudes toward DRM and the perception of disaster risks have a direct impact on effective disaster management. They emphasize that increasing public awareness and education can lead to improved attitudes and risk perception, ultimately contributing to better disaster management (Alqahtany & Rimi Abubakar, 2020). Wiedyaningsih et al. highlighted the need to strengthen positive attitudes toward DRM. They found that positive attitudes can lead to increased participation in prevention and preparedness activities, which, in turn, reduces the impact of disasters (Wiedyaningsih et al., 2023).
Withanaarachchi and Setunge examined students’ attitudes toward DRM and demonstrated that education and awareness can strengthen positive attitudes and increase preparedness (Withanaarachchi & Setunge, 2014). Goniewicz et al. and Mirzaei et al. showed that health professionals’ attitudes toward DRM significantly impact their preparedness and response during times of crisis (Goniewicz et al., 2021; Mirzaei et al., 2019)
Sheikhi et al. examined the role of social responsibility in disaster risk reduction. They showed that increasing awareness and social participation can have a significant impact on preventing and reducing damage caused by disasters. They reported that social responsibility can help improve disaster risk reduction policies by strengthening society’s preparedness and enhancing the preparedness of governmental and non-governmental institutions (Sheikhi et al., 2022).
Aslani et al. emphasized that knowledge management can help reduce vulnerability to disasters. They showed that access to up-to-date information, the recording and transfer of experiences, and the strengthening of organizational learning processes have a significant impact on better preparedness and response in crisis management. This study indicated that developing knowledge management systems in organizations related to crisis management plays an important role in optimizing the decision-making of mid-level managers (Aslani et al., 2024).
Samadi Foroushani et al. found that the participation of all stakeholders, including government institutions, non-governmental organizations, and local communities, can have a positive impact on crisis management and on reducing natural disaster damage. This research suggests that urban managers should use participatory decision-making styles to improve the crisis management process (Samadi Foroushani et al., 2023)
Despite numerous studies in the field of DRM, previous research has rarely examined the interaction between decision-making styles and managers’ intention. Most existing studies have only explored the impact of attitudes on disaster preparedness or analyzed macro-crisis management policies. In contrast, this study is the first to use the TRA to analyze the relationship between middle managers’ decision-making styles and their intention to participate in DRM actions. Additionally, unlike previous studies that have focused more on senior managers or relief workers, this research concentrates on the decision-making of middle-level managers in government and non-government organizations. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the relationship between decision-making styles, attitudes, and subjective norms of middle-level managers and their willingness to participate in DRM. The results of this study can contribute to a better understanding of the factors that facilitate effective participation in DRM and provide strategies for improving disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, it offers research evidence to clarify the interaction between decision-making styles and attitudes in DRM.

Materials and Methods
The present research was descriptive-analytical. A stratified sampling method was used based on the gender distribution of managers within a statistical population of 950 individuals (240 women and 710 men). From among all governmental and non‑governmental organizations in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province—including the Governor’s Office, the Disaster Risk Management Organization, the Red Crescent, the General Directorate of Natural Resources, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences (its hospitals and Health Deputy), the Shahrekord Municipality Crisis Management, and the Agricultural Jihad Organization—a sample of 278 participants was selected through an available (convenience) sampling approach. The sample size was calculated using the Equation 1:
1.  = n=384/1.383 =277.6
Where, n=number of samples, N=statistical population (950 people), z=standard error for 95% confidence level (1.96), P=The proportion of individuals in the population who possess a given characteristic of interest (0.5), q= The proportion of individuals in the population without a given characteristic of interest (0.5), and d=margin of error (0.05). Therefore, the required sample size was 277.6, rounded up to 278.
The inclusion criteria were individuals working in governmental and non-governmental organizations involved in crisis and disaster management in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province (such as the Governor’s Office, Crisis Management Organization, Red Crescent, General Directorate of Natural Resources, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord Municipality Crisis Management, and Agricultural Jihad Organization) who participated in decision-making and crisis planning processes, were willing to take part in the study, and had completed questionnaires or interviews. The exclusion criteria included unwillingness to participate in the study and not engaging in decision-making and crisis planning processes.
Data were collected using two questionnaires. Scott and Bruce’s General Decision-Making Style Inventory, which assesses rational, intuitive, dependent, immediate, and avoidant decision-making styles, was used to determine the managers’ styles. This inventory comprises 25 questions scored on a Likert scale (ranging from 1 for “never” to 5 for “always”), with total scores ranging from 25 to 125. According to Scott and Bruce (1995), the Cronbach’s α for the rational decision-making style was 0.85, for the intuitive style was 0.84, for the dependent style was 0.86, for the immediate style was 0.94, and for the avoidant decision-making style was 0.87. The reliability of this tool has been previously confirmed in various studies conducted in Iran (Heidari, 2014; Saffarinia et al., 2016; Salimi, 2019). In the present study, the Cronbach’s α score for all dimensions combined was 0.81. 
A researcher-developed questionnaire, based on the TRA, was designed to assess managers’ decision-making styles, attitudes, and willingness to implement DRM measures. This instrument contains 74 items across five dimensions: external factors affecting disaster risk reduction (12 items), managers’ support resources (6 items), their intention toward DRM measures in the prevention phase (23 items), managers’ subjective norms (10 items), and their intention to implement DRM (23 items). Responses are recorded on a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire’s content validity was assessed using the content validity ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI). Following evaluation by 8 experts, the number of items was reduced from 82 to 74. The CVR values exceeded Lawshe’s critical limit of 0.81, and the average CVI was 0.9. Reliability was determined using the test-retest method, yielding a Cronbach’s α of 0.82.  Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics, correlation tests, and path analysis with SPSS software, version 20.

Results 
Of the participants involved in disaster-related management within organizations and institutions, 75% (209 individuals) were male, and 25% (69 individuals) were female. Educational attainment varied: four participants held an associate degree (one male and three females), 186 held a bachelor’s degree (140 males and 46 females), and 88 held a master’s degree or higher (68 males and 20 females) (Table 1).
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was conducted to assess the normality of data for decision-making styles, attitudes, intention, subjective norms, and external factors related to the TRA. The obtained values were greater than 0.05, indicating that parametric tests are appropriate for analysis.
In terms of the mean scores for managers’ decision-making styles, the intuitive dimension had the highest mean (15.13), while the immediate dimension had the lowest mean (14.22). For the TRA dimensions, external factors and the intention to act exhibited the highest means. However, the high standard deviation observed in these dimensions suggests considerable variability in the responses. The attitude toward preparedness for DRM had the lowest mean score, indicating greater homogeneity among participants for this variable (Table 2).
Using the path analysis method, the extent and intensity of the relationships between decision-making style variables and the dimensions of the TRA, including intention to act, subjective norm, external factors, and managers’ intentions regarding DRM measures, were examined. The strongest relationships were observed in the “dependent” and “rational” dimensions, while the weakest relationships were found in the “immediate” and “avoidant” dimensions (Table 3).
The “rational” and “dependent” styles showed the highest significant relationships with the TRA, with a correlation value of 0.914 and a significance level of 0.01. Meanwhile, the “immediate,” “avoidant,” and “intuitive” styles had significance levels greater than 0.05, indicating that these styles did not have a significant relationship with the model (Table 4).
Table 5 shows that the strongest significant positive correlation was between external factors and the dependent decision-making style (r=0.60). Additionally, the relationship between managers’ intentions toward DRM preparedness and the dependent decision-making style (r=0.51) was also highly significant. On the other hand, the weakest significant relationship (p<0.05) was between the intention to act and the dependent decision-making style (r=0.30). There was also a significant relationship between external factors (r=0.49), the intention to act (r=0.34), and the rational decision-making style (Table 5).

Discussion 
In this study, most participants were male, reflecting the greater presence of men in disaster-related management positions. The majority of participants held a bachelor’s degree, and most had between five and ten years of work experience.
The highest significant correlation observed was between external factors and the dependent decision-making style (r=0.60), followed by the rational dimension (r=0.49) among mid-level disaster managers, indicating the positive impact of external factors on dependent and rational decision-making. Boin et al. reported that external factors, such as social pressures, media, and public opinion, had a significant effect on dependent decision-making in crisis managers. In their study, the correlation coefficient between external factors and dependent decision-making was 0.55, which is similar to the findings of the current study; however, the effect of these factors on rational decision-making was weaker than in the present study (Kaiser et al., 2021). Elsafty and Mansour demonstrated that external factors can significantly enhance dependent decision-making and increase the correlation between these factors and rational decision-making styles (Elsafty & Mansour, 2023). These results align with the findings of the present study. Zadelaar et al. emphasize managers’ dependence on external factors, especially in psychological and emotional domains, where their decision-making is more influenced by social pressures and external approvals (Zadelaar et al., 2021). Sosnowski and Brosnan indicate that decision-makers in high-pressure environments tend to rely more on external information when faced with uncertainty (Sosnowski & Brosnan, 2023), highlighting the significant role of external factors in strategic decision-making. Studies by Coccia, Geisler and Allwood, and Garcia and Peterson emphasize that during crises or environmental changes, managers are more inclined to base decisions on external information and social pressures (Coccia, 2020; Garcia, 2021; Geisler & Allwood, 2017). Robbins found that rational decision-making is strongly influenced by environmental information, external data, and systematic analysis, suggesting that external factors can optimize decision-making processes (Robbins, 2020). Conversely, Williams showed that in certain circumstances, external factors can diminish the quality of rational decision-making, positing that excessive external pressures may disrupt focus on detailed analysis, potentially leading to emotional or rapid reactions (Williams, 2014). The divergence between the findings of the present study and others may be attributable to differences in environmental conditions, types of crises, or distinct organizational cultures.
In this study, attitude, among the factors of the rational function theory, had the greatest impact on the dependent decision-making style in middle-level managers (r=0.51). It showed no significant impact on the rational, intuitive, immediate, and avoidant dimensions of the decision-making model among these managers. Sosnowski and Brosnan found that managers’ intention plays a key role in dependent decision-making, while having a lesser impact on other decision-making styles, such as rational, intuitive, or avoidant. The results of this study confirm that positive or negative attitudes can increase the tendency towards dependent decision-making, but do not necessarily have the same effect on other styles (Sosnowski & Brosnan, 2023), which is consistent with the findings of the present study. Another study found that managers with a dependent decision-making style pay more attention to their own attitudes and the social groups around them. Studies by Fattoum et al. and Abubakar et al. also emphasize the key role of attitude in decision-making (Fattoum et al., 2024; Abubakar et al., 2019). However, attitude did not show a significant relationship with other dimensions of decision-making style (rational, intuitive, immediate, and avoidant) among middle managers, indicating the importance of circumstances, experience, and other factors in the formation of these styles. Preda et al. found that managers using intuitive decision-making face threats such as failure, blame, and reputational damage, which may make them less inclined to engage in this type of decision-making (Preda et al., 2023).
Subjective norms were significantly correlated with the dependent decision-making style (r=0.46) of mid-level disaster managers. In the research by Williams et al. and Patel et al., subjective norms had a significant effect on dependent decision-making in crisis managers (Williams et al., 2021; Patel et al., 2020), which aligns with the present study. 
It was also found that in crisis situations, peer pressure and social norms can lead managers to make dependent decisions and rely on the approval of others (Brown et al., 2023). Lee found that managers influenced by subjective norms are more likely to seek advice and approval from colleagues and social groups, which increases the tendency to make dependent decisions (Lee et al., 2021). Thompson et al. found that subjective norms play an important role in group and dependent decision-making, but have less influence on independent or intuitive decision-making (Thompson et al., 2022), which is consistent with the present study. While Garcia and Lopez showed that subjective norms can negatively impact dependent decision-making, as some managers prefer individual and rational decision-making to maintain independence and avoid group influences (Garcia and Lopez, 2020), Nakamura and Tanka found that in some cultures and organizations, subjective norms have little influence on decision-making, and more individual factors, such as experience, knowledge, and intuition, play a major role (Nakamura and Tanka, 2019). 
The differences between the findings of the present study and other studies can be attributed, on the one hand, to variations in management levels and the distinct responsibilities of managers, which may influence decision-making. Middle managers in crises are typically under greater pressure to coordinate and gain group approval, leading them towards dependent decision-making, whereas senior managers generally possess more independence. Furthermore, the type of crisis and the level of uncertainty can affect managers’ propensity to rely on subjective norms; in complex crises, managers are more inclined to make dependent decisions. On the other hand, organizational and social culture also play a significant role; in collectivist societies, peer pressure and social norms exert a greater influence on dependent decision-making. 
In this study, the highest significant correlation was observed between the intention to act and the rational decision-making style, followed by the dependency dimension in mid-level disaster managers. This indicates a positive impact of intention on rational and dependent decision-making. The results of different previous studies (Alkhawlani and Bohari, 2019; Fayolle and Bidkarat, 2021; Huang et al., 2019; k, 2020) are consistent with our findings. In the study by Martinez and Li, the intuitive decision-making style was associated with a greater intention to take action, while the rational style had a lesser impact. The authors argue that in emergency situations, quick and intuitive decision-making can be more efficient (Martinez and Li, 2021). In the study by Kim and Zhao, the autonomous decision-making style had a greater impact on the intention to act (Kim and Zhao, 2020). The discrepancy with these findings may be related to differences in the conditions and types of decision-making environments.

Conclusion 
The results of this study indicate that external factors and managers’ intention play a decisive role in the participation of middle-level managers in DRM, particularly in dependent and rational decision-making styles. The most significant correlation was observed between external factors and dependent decision-making styles, suggesting that especially in critical environments, decisions are more influenced by external factors. Additionally, managers’ intention significantly affected dependent decision-making, although its impact on other decision-making styles was less pronounced. These findings can contribute to strategic planning in the field of DRM.
To improve decision-making in crisis situations, managers should enhance their ability to integrate external information with rational analysis. Developing decision-support systems that incorporate environmental data, predictive analytics, and artificial intelligence tools into the crisis management process can help mitigate reliance on emotional decision-making and increase the accuracy of rational decisions. Furthermore, conducting crisis simulation workshops and decision-making exercises in high-risk situations can better prepare managers for effective responses in real-world scenarios.
Considering the limitations of this study, such as its focus on middle-level managers and the lack of examination of the long-term effects of decisions, future studies are recommended to analyze more complex interactions between decision-making styles and environmental factors across different management levels. Moreover, as the sample was drawn exclusively from Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, the results may not be generalizable to other regions of Iran or other countries. Therefore, it is suggested that future research should utilize larger and more diverse samples from various regions of Iran. Additionally, future research could explore the relationship between individual characteristics (personality, experience, or educational level), financial resources, infrastructure, or organizational culture in critical decision-making, and examine the role of new technologies in enhancing DRM processes.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
This study was approved by theEthics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Khorasgan Branch (Code: IR.IAU.KHUISF.REC.1397.226). In this study, ethical considerations were observed at all stages of the research. This included obtaining informed consent from study participants, securing the necessary permissions for sampling, and maintaining the confidentiality of personal information.

Funding
This research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. 

Authors' contributions
Conceptualization, and Data analysis: Salman Pourdavoud and Simin Tahmasebi; Supervision, Methodology, and Review & editing: Simin Tahmasebi; Writing – original draft, Investigation and, Data collection: Salman Pourdavoud.

Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments
This study would not have been possible without the cooperation of the participants, who are hereby acknowledged and thanked.